Writing Services: Writing

What is an annotated bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetically organized list of sources (like a regular bibliography) with a short paragraph below each entry describing the source. The contents of the paragraph may vary according to the assignment, but usually include a brief summary of the work’s main focus, its claims or conclusions, and your assessment of its credibility and its potential value to your work.

Typical Length: several pages with each source citation followed by a short paragraph (3-5 sentences) of annotation.

Key characteristics

• Citations in Chicago or APA bibliographic form, arranged alphabetically.
• A paragraph containing 1-2 sentences summarizing the source then 1-2 sentences assessing the source’s reliability, relevance to your work, and/or potential function within your project (ex. evidence, background, counterclaim, etc.)

What is a design review?

In studios and seminars, you may be asked to review/critique a work of architecture. This form of writing should include description, reflection, analysis, and evaluation while remaining direct and succinct. A close visual reading of the building should be geared to a general audience and avoid “ArchiSpeak” - obscure and specialized language only decipherable by those in the design professions. In this form of critique, the objective is to assess both the strengths and weaknesses of the form and function of the structure within its intended context and outcomes.

What is an ekphrasis?

An ekphrasis is a vivid description of a visual or physical object. This type of writing begins with a close reading that describes and deciphers the object’s form. It should then compare the visual object with the ideal for which it aims. Ekphrases are a historical, literary genre that can be also understood as a way to bring to life through words the mind of a person or society looking at the visual object. When writing an ekphrasis, pay close attention to the modes of representation of the visual object (is the object a building or a representation of a building in plan, section, etc.).

Typical Length: 1500-2500 words 

What is an executive summary?

An executive summary is a concise overview of a longer document or report, typically highlighting the key points, main findings, and recommendations. Its goal is to inform and motivate busy executives or stakeholders.

Typical Length: 1-3 pages

Key characteristics

• Often contains headings, bullet points, and images/figures.
• Uses clear and direct language.
• Addresses a problem and proposes solutions.
• Has an audience in mind that it calls to action.

Common pitfalls

• Too much passive voice
• Too wordy and/or dense
• Unexplained acronyms/terminology
• Multiple topics in one paragraph or repeated topics

What is a literature review?

A literature review (or lit review, for short) establishes themes and contexts that your research builds upon, linking your project to existing work developed by other scholars and practitioners. Literature here means a body of work, which traditionally includes scholarly journal articles, books, book chapters, dissertations and theses, and conference proceedings. In the case of design, however, literature may also include plans, sections, photographs, and any type of media that portrays relevant work. 

What does a literature review look like?

Each discipline has its own style for writing a literature review; urban planning lit reviews may look different than those from architecture, and design lit reviews will look significantly different from reviews in the biological sciences or engineering. Before you start writing, check a few examples of literature reviews conducted in your field of research to familiarize yourself with the typical format. 

• Organize source material by themes and connections. Consider using subheadings for clarity.
• Identify methodologies, arguments, and possible gaps in the literature.
• Explain the implications of other people's findings for one's own research project.

Where is the literature review?

• Part of an introduction: most scholarly articles and books will have a literature review within the introductory sections. Its precise location may vary, but it is most often in the first few paragraphs or pages.

• Dedicated literature review: these are stand-alone resources unto themselves. You can search for "literature review" and a topic, and you may find that one already exists. These literature reviews are useful as models within your field, for finding additional sources to explore, and for beginning to map the general relationships within the scholarly conversation around your topic. Be mindful not to plagiarize the source material.

Database search tip: Add the phrase "literature review" to your search to find published literature reviews.Literature Review Resources

Literature Review Resources

Visit the following links for more information, including tips on how to categorize your source material and how to compose your lit review.

What is a memo?

A memo (short for memorandum) is a brief communication to inform an audience about a problem, a new procedure, an event, or a proposed plan. Memos usually include actionable steps for the recipient to take. These documents are most often used in business to share information internally with members of the team.

Typical Length: several paragraphs

Key characteristics

• Has a heading that succinctly informs the reader of the topic.
• Uses clear and concise language.
• Knows the audience and provides necessary background information.
• Addresses the impact or implications of the information.
• Provides clear next steps and possibly a timeline.

What is a policy memo?

A policy memo is a concise, well-structured professional document. It informs policymakers, government officials, and other stakeholders about a pressing issue, presenting clear recommendations supported by evidence. Policy memos aim to facilitate quick, informed decision-making.

At the GSD, policy memos may be used in urban planning, real estate, and environmental policy courses. They require a balance of technical knowledge and persuasive argumentation, with a focus on spatial, economic, or governance-related issues.

Structure of a policy memo

1. Header
   • Date
   • To (Recipient)
   • From (Author)
   • Subject (Concise topic summary)
2. Executive Summary
   • A brief overview of the issue, key findings, and primary recommendation(s)
3. Problem Statement
   • A succinct description of the issue, including relevant background information
4. Analysis
   • Key evidence, data, and arguments supporting the recommendations
   • Consideration of potential alternatives
5. Conclusion
   • Restates key takeaways and reinforces the urgency of action
6. References (if applicable)
   • Citations or supporting materials, if necessary

What is a policy brief?

A policy brief is a short, focused document that presents an issue, explains its significance, and outlines policy options. Unlike a policy memo, which is typically addressed to a specific decision-maker and contains direct recommendations, a policy brief provides an overview of possible approaches without prescribing a single solution. Policy briefs are used to educate stakeholders, including policymakers, academics, and the general public, about a policy issue. They highlight key debates and provide an accessible summary of research findings to inform decision-making.

For students in urban planning or real estate, policy briefs may be used to present land use policies, housing strategies, or infrastructure solutions. They encourage critical thinking about policy trade-offs while remaining accessible to a broader audience.

Structure of a policy brief

1. Title
   • Engaging, descriptive, and policy-relevant
2. Executive Summary
   • A concise introduction to the issue and key takeaways
3. Background & Context
   • Explanation of the issue's significance
   • Relevant data and historical context
4. Policy options
   • Overview of different approaches to addressing the issue
   • Comparative analysis of potential benefits and drawbacks
5. Conclusions & Implications
   • Key insights and considerations for future action
6. References & Further Reading (if applicable) 

What is a project statement/narrative?

A project statement or narrative describes your project and what makes it unique. It also articulates the project’s spatial, historical, and material context. It should be in dialogue with the graphic work (models, plans, renderings, etc.) to communicate the project to its audience in an academic or professional setting.

What is a reading response?

A reading response typically demonstrates that you have understood an assigned text or texts and that you have rigorously explored your thoughts and speculations about what you read. A successful reading response includes critical thinking and analysis of the text(s). It usually includes a succinct statement articulating the thesis or main argument of the reading and a few sentences about how the author builds their argument (methodology). You can include reactions or questions that the text raised for you, and might include your thoughts on non-textual materials that you find relevant.

Typical Length: 250-1000 words (1-4 pages of double-spaced text)

Key characteristics

• Extracts ideas central to the text and explains/demonstrates why they are important.
• Establishes relevance to other texts and materials (within and outside of the course).
• Identifies your own central claim or focus that unifies your piece of writing.
• Reflects on the relevance of your focus to the selected text(s) or materials

Common pitfalls

• Contains unnecessary summarizing. Check that all your textual evidence serves your central focus or argument.
• Relies on quotations without utilizing them to advance your argument. Use the sandwich method of incorporating textual evidence.
• Provides insufficient textual evidence to support your argument or claims. Make sure you answer the question, “how do I know this?” Again, refer to the sandwich method for how to use and cite your text(s).
• Addresses unrelated arguments. Re-read your paper with your central focus/claim/argument in mind.
• Cut or adjust any parts that do not directly build upon that central theme. Sometimes a first draft changes direction partway through writing, and that’s fine. Just remember to revise the final draft for coherence.

What is a research paper?

A research paper is the final product of a research process, and it deploys critical thinking, source evaluation, organization, and composition to convey an argument/thesis. Typically, a successful research paper contains a clear thesis statement in the first or second paragraph which is supported by primary and/or secondary sources to support an original claim. A research paper should also address counterarguments, gaps in the field of knowledge, and relevance/urgency. It can be argumentative or analytical, depending on the course.

Typical Length: 2000-5000 words / 8-20 pages of double-spaced text (course-dependent)

Key characteristics

• Contains primary and/or secondary sources.
• Contains a clear thesis statement.
• Uses sources to support an original claim (emphasis on what you bring to the conversation).
• Can be argumentative or analytical.

Common pitfalls

• Research overwhelm. Use reading strategies to evaluate texts and find what you need. Schedule a session with a research librarian to guide you efficiently through the research process.
• Defining a thesis argument. Expect that the thesis statement will evolve as you write, so start with a question, confusion, or curious observation and see where it leads you.
• Topic/thesis statement often need to be reworked following the first round of research and writing.
• This is a natural aspect of the writing process that you should try to embrace. Make sure you leave sufficient time to rework things and try not to become overly attached to your original thesis statement. Being adaptable will strengthen your final product
• Instructor expectations are not always clear and may involve emulating strategies and using research questions modeled--sometimes implicitly--in class.
• Try to address any uncertainties you have regarding expectations as early as possible in the writing process. You can reach out to your course TA or your professor with questions. You can also schedule a session with a research librarian or writing tutor.

What is a studio narrative?

A studio narrative is the spoken or written portion of a studio review or presentation that complements visual materials (images, maps, models). It connects visuals to visuals in a cohesive story and introduces theoretical and historical influences on the project. The narrative is tailored to the audience, whether professors, classmates, juries, or clients. 

Typical Length: 250-500 words or 1-2 pages of double-spaced text. 

Key characteristics

• Describes the design's spatial and temporal aspects.
• Supports and explains the visuals.
• Is typically presented orally.
• Introduces key formative sources, including theory texts.

Common pitfalls

• Describing visuals without tying them into a narrative. The story should show how the visuals work together. 
• Overloading slides with quotes - speak them instead and use visuals for support.
• Using complex sentences or jargon. Edit for clarity and conciseness, and test for ease of understanding.